Alcoas Core Values in Practice Ethics and Integrity

Case Study: Alcoas Core Values in Practice Alcoa seems to live by an integrity approach. To wit: Alcoa had a very strong values-based culture. ... In 1985, Fred Fetterolf, then president, decided the company needed to document the values that all employees must live by: Integrity; Environment, Health, and Safety; Customer; Accountability; Excellence; People; and Profitability. Its later CEO Paul ONeill, empathized workplace health and safety to be one of the most important principles that all employees should abide by. Alcoa also implemented a global ethics and compliance program, and closely complied with the U.S. Federal Sentencing Guidelines and Sarbanes-Oxley Act. In order to ensure that employees were adhering to the companys integrity approach, Alcoa appointed an ethics and compliance officer who regulated the companys a global code of conduct and continuously reported top Board on maintenance of not only its prescription with code but also on its ethics and compliance training for employees, as well as other related systems. Studies on business research constantly show that one of the most enduring and significant factors of business success is integrity since customers trust them and they win friends as well as win more clients due to the word-of-mouth reputation. Business integrity has to be deep and seep through its various layers. With it survives and flourishes. Without it, the business is short-lived. Alco possessed genuine integrity. It was likelyShow MoreRelatedAlcoas Case923 Words   |  4 PagesAlcoa’s Case Study 2 1. How would you classify Alcoa’s ethical climate? Which ethical criterion, as shown in figure 5.1., was used by the company: egoism (self-centered), benevolence (concern for others) or principles (integrity approach)? Or, using Professor Paine’s two distinct ethics approaches, as discussed in this chapter, was Alcoa’s approach more compliance or integrity? Alcoa since its inception had a very strong values and the people itself enforce these values, all the employees knewRead MoreEssay about Alcoa’s Core Values in Practice680 Words   |  3 PagesAlcoa’s Core Values in Practice BUS 250 Alcoa’s Core Values in Practice The Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) was founded in 1888 as the Pittsburgh Reduction Company. In 1907, they changed their name to Alcoa and had strong values based culture. â€Å"In 1985, Fred Fetterolf, then president, decided the company needed to document the values that all employees must live by: Integrity; Environment, Health, and Safety; Customer; Accountability; Excellence;

Bowlby s Theory Of Attachment - 2197 Words

The aim off this assignment is to demonstrate my knowledge on Bowlby’s theory of attachment by been able to apply it to Neil from the programme 56 Up. In this assignment I will be analysing Neil’s life and explaining his transition from child hood to adolescent with the help of Bowlby life course theories. Throughout this assignment I will be using an adequate amount of literature to support my statements. I ve decided to concentrate on Neil from the programme 56 Up, the reasoning behind this is that Neil s life ended up being maybe the most unpredictable of the group. During the show we witness Neil transition from a happy seven year old who had big aspiration to go to Oxford University (56 Up, 2012) to make a future for himself to him†¦show more content†¦As Neil always had ambition to be in politics it was no surprise that by the time of 42 up he was involved in politics, as a liberal Democrats in the London borough of hackney (56 Up, 2012) . As the programme progressed we saw Neil relocate to the North West of England to become a District councillor. When the programme came to an end we were able to see Neil become less agitated and much more jubilant. The theory of attachment was originally developed by John Bowlby (1907 – 1990), a British psychoanalyst. Bowlby’s explanation of attachment hints that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with other, because this will avail them to survive. According to Bowlby, crying, clinging and searching our behaviours displayed by infants as a result of separation from their primary caregiver and a response to re-establish proximity. Bowlby proposed the idea of monotropy, this is when an effective emotional bond is formed between an infant and one particular individual. Bowlby suggested that there is a critical period for attachment to be formed between an infant and caregiver. This means that if an attachment is not formed priority to the first two years of infancy it would not be possible to form an attachment after this period. Thus meaning that the child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences as a result of maternal deprivation. Bowlby used the term maternal deprivation to refer to theShow MoreRelatedBowlby s Theory Of Attachment Theory1644 Words   |  7 PagesBowlby s Attachment Theory Findings from animal studies were a powerful influence on Bowlby s thoughts. He suggested too that there was a critical period for the development of attachments between infant and care giver. According to Bowlby, children display an innate tendency to become attached to one particular individual. He called this monotropy. He suggested this trend was qualitatively different from any subsequent attachment a child might form. However, he did not suggest monotropy was absoluteRead MoreBowlby s Theory Of Attachment1255 Words   |  6 PagesAttachment refers to an affectional bond; a bond which is exclusive to an individual and cannot be exchanged to another. A particularly important bond is the emotional one between an infant and its primary care giver. When it comes to attachment it is often said that it is either down to nature or nurture. Nature is the belief that it is genetic based whilst nurture believes it is our environment and experiences. Bowlby focuses on the evolutionary argument for attachment. Bowlby’s theory can beRead MoreJohn Bowlby s Theory Of Attachment1439 Words   |  6 PagesJohn Bowlby and his theory of attachment plus criticisms and how these come into effect in practice and legislation. Edward John Mostyn Bowlby was born February 27th 1907 and died September 2nd 1990. He was born in London to a middle class family. He was mostly taken care of by his nanny because his parents believed that spending too much time with him could lead to him becoming a spoilt child. At age 7 he was sent to boarding school by his parents. After finishing boarding school Bowlby went onRead MoreBowlby s Theory Of Attachment1441 Words   |  6 Pagesmonths old there was not much attachment present, however he would smile at familiar people and toys, and was able to laugh at surprising or funny things indicating that he was comfortable with new situations and was developing awareness of his surroundings. Later on Noah recognized me as his primary caregiver because I was the one always tending to his needs. When he was upset, anxious, or troubled he preferred me over anyone else. According to Bowlby’s theory of attachment â€Å"The infant knows that theRead MoreBowlby s Theory Of A ttachment1431 Words   |  6 PagesPerhaps the most influential explanation of attachment was presented by John Bowlby who began developing his ideas in the 1940s. Bowlby was commissioned by the World Health Organisation to investigate whether young children were likely to be harmed if they are separated from their mothers in the early years. (Hayes, 1996). Bowlby (1951) reported that infants possesses an innate need to attach to one main attachment figure (this was usually the mother). According to Hayes (1996), this is a specialRead MoreBowlby s Evolutionary Theory Of Attachment1497 Words   |  6 PagesBowlby defined attachment as â€Å"a lasting psychological integration bounded by human beings† (Bowlby, 1969, p.194). However, attachment can also be described as a strong, mutual, emotional connection or relationship formed between two people, mostly between infant and its caregiver. According to Macoby (1988) attachment has four key characteristics which are: proximity; where an infant always want to stay near the attached caregiver. Separation anxiety; is when the infant is distressed when separatedRead MoreJohn Bowlby s Theory Of Attachment1423 Words   |  6 PagesJohn Bowlby’s theory of attachment asserts that an infant forms an attachment to the primary caregiver to ensure survival. Developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth furthered this idea by devising attachment styles in infants. Ainsworth believed that the quality of care given by the mother or primary caregiver results in the infant developing a secure or insecure attachment. Ainsworth identified three attachment styles, namely; secure, avoidant and anxious/ambivalent attachments. As the word infersRead MoreJohn Bowlby s Theory Of Attachment1581 Words   |  7 Pagesin the prenatal development, infancy and childhood, as new-borns develop into young adulthood capable of becoming a parent themselves. This assignment will discuss the developmental stage of a chosen child scenario and apply to John Bowlby’s theory of attachment. It will also discuss the key safeguarding issues within the child scenario and how they could have been prohibited. Scenario The chosen child scenario for this assignment is Paul (see appendix). Paul is six years of age and is the middleRead MoreThe s Container / Contained Theory And Bowlby s Attachment Theory Essay1401 Words   |  6 Pagesintentionally. This directly impacts the victim s safety and sense of trust. The devastating effects of this type of trauma is the way in which it impacts not only the survivors, but also future generations, and the ability they have to form attachments (Connolly, 2011). This report outlines the importance of Bion’s container/contained theory and Bowlby’s attachment theory in developing secure relationships. Sadly, abused infants form a disorganised attachment style which causes them as adults to adaptRead MoreJohn Bowlby And Mary Ainsworth s Attachment Theories1196 Words   |  5 Pages John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth s attachment theories derive from the idea that in early development infants develop different attachment behaviors in relation to their caregivers. This emotional bond between an infant and their parents can have an enduring impact on future relationships throughout an individual s life. Research has shown that there does not have to be a biological component for an infant to bond with a parent. Instead the bond or attachment is related to â€Å"quality and quantity†

Aq for Conformity Free Essays

Young people of my country conform and deviate, but in varying degrees. This is expressed by Suematsu in paragraph 3 of passage B where he states â€Å"Conform too much, and you are toast, deviate too much, and you are toast too. † in context to the school life. We will write a custom essay sample on Aq for Conformity or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is the same with Singapore. Young people of my country must find the perfect balance of conforming and deviating in order to be â€Å"popular†. And that answers the question as to why they conform and deviate. Even within Singapore, different young people may conform and deviate in different ways and in variable degrees. For example, students in a secondary school may find that breaking the rules, â€Å"deviating† in other words, is considered cool but students from a junior college may find conforming more to their style. This is probably due to the mental maturity of the different age groups. In secondary school, students are still young and may not fully comprehend the consequences of their actions or maybe even be given rose coloured glasses by their peer (peer pressure), whereas in JC, the students have matured greatly from their secondary school days and understand the consequences they have to face in breaking a rule. However, we also have to consider what kind of circles the young people come from. Some young people may come from more shady backgrounds, and they may break more rules (of both society and school) than normal, but to them, or perhaps, to their social circle, it may be a form of conforming. It isn’t their fault as they have been brought up or have been exposed to such an environment at a early age. To them, it is the norm. they do not know how else to act except to deviate. Even within that circle, there may be some limits to the kind of rules or how many you can break. This is also illustrated by Suematsu who states â€Å"We all conform to some standard one way or another†¦ this collective standard can vary even within a society. † It is also seen in the undercurrents of Heath and Potter’s work where they state â€Å"they do place limits.. † which states that even with deviation, there is a limit to what you can do. As Heath and Potter argue, the conformity will not destroy individuality. Which is probably why most young people in my country tend to deviate less (in terms of society and rules). Even with our uniform, most of the young people do not bother to accessorize or alter our uniform (except maybe the length) too much. It is, in our perspective, a uniform, and therefore, is not an accurate representation of our true selves. We tend not to bother too much about showing off our individuality, saving that for when the weekend comes or when we go out. As Suematsu states â€Å"the conclusion that limited means of expression equals limited expressions of individuality which may be wrong. † Besides, â€Å"students have a thousand and one ways to modify a school uniform†, which is also another reason why students conform to wearing the uniform, though they deviate a little by maybe, shortening the skirt a little too short, or wearing pretty hair accessories. It is probably also true that many young people of my country may fuss a little too much over details such as hair, makeup or attire (more often lately). When we go out, it is important to look our best in order to portray our individuality (this is the same for many other countries). Even so, be it our moral compass, or our parents or even the society, young people still conform to a certain type of limit set by above mentioned factors, though deviating. This is the so-called golden balance that Suematsu mentions. How to cite Aq for Conformity, Papers

Will the European Union Survive its Current Crisis of Confidence

Question: Will the European Union survive its current crisis of confidence? if it breaks up what will this mean for international business? please make the assignment on this topic we have got the topic separately in class and its not given in the subject outline minimum 25 refrences please. Answer: The European Union is regarded as an economic and political partnership that makes the representation of a unique type of cooperation that exists among other countries that are sovereign. The European Union worked as the latest stage in bringing the European Countries together after the Second World War The the European Union has emerged from the binding of the treaties and the with the passage of the years the European Union has worked in harmonizing the laws and adopting the general policies on several economic, political and social issues. The member States of the European Union share among themselves a union that is based on customs and a sole market where the people, goods and the capital operate freely (Bonet Donato, 2011). In this essay, the author will deal with the EU crisis and discuss if the European Union will survive its current crisis of confidence. It will further examine the consequences of the crisis on the international business. The member states of the European Union work collectively to set their policy and make the collective promotion of their interests. The institutions of the European Union make the inclusion of the European Council that is composed of the statutory heads of the State of the Countries that are present in the European Union (Habermas, 2012). The decision making a process of the European Union is subject to varying considerations among the countries of the European Union (Pisani-Ferry, 2012). The European project that includes the creation of the sole market involving the institutions of Europe that are considered as the pillars of the effort and the public good faith for making the betterment of their future (Lerbinger, 2012).The crisis manager). According to (Schimmelfennig, 2014) the primary crisis of confidence lies in the fact that the loss of trust of the public in the project of the European Union. This happened since the year of 2014 and now in the present scenario, it seems that the lack of public trust over the projects of the European Union is now rebounding in several countries (Feldstein, 2015). According to (Ludlow, 2006) the emergence of the rationale of the Roman Treaty that was created between the six countries of the Common Market of Europe in the year of 1957 established the integration in economic terms. Such introduction of economic integration acts as a beneficial action for all the countries, which are participating in the European Union (Bridwell, 2013). At the beginning of the crisis of European Union, the people of the Europe began to make the doubt of the assumption that is made by the European Union. In between the years of 2009 and 2013, the belief of the people regarding the integration of the strength of the economy is subject to a fall of twenty-one points in the Country of France (Hall, 2012). Reports from (Feldstein, 2015) show that the strength of the economy has fallen to twenty points in the Country of Italy and fallen to sixteen points in the country of Spain (De Grauwe, Ji, 2013). In the year of 2013, there was only twenty-three percent of economic integration, which was in positive terms for the national economy (Klose, Weigert, 2013). However, in the year of 2014, the strength of the integration of the European Union began to return (De Grauwe Ji 2013). The proportion of the public that involves in making the identification in making the removal of the trade and the barriers to investment within the continent of Europe that has increased by fifteen percent points in the last year (Bergsten Kirkegaard, 2012). In the country of Germany, the integration has strengthened the economy by sixty-three percent. The integration has increased in Poland by fifty-three percent as given in the paper (Gros Mayer, 2010). In the majority parts of Italy, France, Spain and Greece, the integration of the economy has been subject to become weak. Hence, the damage that is done to the European Union has not yet been repaired. Hence, it can be said that the European Union is yet to be repaired. The European Union is administered and governed by some institutions. They never correspond to the branches of traditional government that are related to the division of power (Habermas, 2012). The crises that are faced by the European Union are regarded as the Eurozone Crisis. As the 28 Member States of the European Union uses, the same currency the European Union is often referred to as the Eurozone (Ludlow, 2006). The crisis of the Eurozone emerged in the financial crisis or the crisis of debt that occurred in the Country of Greece in between 2009 and 2010 (Dawson Witte, 2013). In the previous decade, the government of Greece has been indulged in taking money from several countries of the international market (Ludlow, 2006). As a result, that Country has been subject to a huge crisis in the financial terms. There have been huge deficits in the budgets of Greece (Habermas, 2012). The investors in the markets of Greece began to make huge concerns regarding the financial instability of Greece and because of that in the year of 2009, the investors began to ask demand their money back or ask for higher rates of interest on the money that is lent (Ash, 2012). As a result, the concerns of the market condition of Greece spread over the entire Eurozone and lead to the slowing of the economic growth the power of strengthening the integration of the economy. The leaders of the European institutions have made a prompt response to the crisis. Reports show that (Moravcsik, 2012) to safeguard the economic crisis; there has been the grant of loan to several countries like Greece, Portugal and Ireland by the European Union. The recent crisis in the country of Greece has posed the challenge to the European Union of its pr oject of integration (Bergsten, Kirkegaard, 2012). The project of the European Union that includes the creation of the sole market involving the institutions of Europe that are considered as the pillars of the effort and the public good faith for making the betterment of their future (Moravcsik et al., 2012). According to (Hall, 2012) the primary crisis of confidence lies in the fact that the loss of confidence of the public in the project of the European Union. This happened since the year of 2014 and now in the present scenario, it seems that the lack of public trust over the projects of the European Union is now rebounding in several countries (Moravcsik, et al., 2012). The decision making a process of the European Union is subject to varying considerations among the countries of the European Union (Habermas, 2012). According to (Bridwell, 2013) there is a growing worry that some parts of EU integration for the first time in history may be reversed or stopped (Schimmelfennig, 2014) contend that in spite of the multiple crises it may happen, that it evoke some reforms that are beneficial for the EU. It is necessary to overcome the crisis of the confidence and "transform the bloc into a more effective and cohesive entity". If EU does not break up its confidence, it can mostly continue to function without any prominent changes in the treaty or the decision-making reforms. It will also be able to resolve the issue such as economic situation posed by Greece and increasing migratory pressures believes (Hall, 2012). It will be possible for EU to continue pursuing integration and standard policies wherever possible regardless of UK being its member (Schimmelfennig, 2014). If the EU breaks up its confidence, it will not be able to grab its possible scenarios and muddle through the situation (De Grauwe, Ji, 2013). (Bridwell, 2013) Has stated some of the possible scenarios in the hands of the EU. One is that it can soon become "two-speed entity" encompassing a strong integrated group of "core countries" and a group of "periphery countries" giving these groups a flexibility to select in which EU policies they want to participate. Analytical reports show that there are many members in practice with two-speed EU, having a range of initiatives such as Schengen, Eurozone, defence policy and justice and home affairs issues. (De Grauwe Ji, 2013) suggests that the two-tier system could create ripples between core and periphery member states. The other scenario includes that EU integration may be put on hold by national capitals due to sovereignty issues. According to (Klose Weigert, 2013) this may be most likely should reform-minded eurosceptic parties come into power in more EU countries and if the UK is successful in its bid to carve out additional EU policy exemptions. It may happen that EU will easily expand and include aspirants in Turkey and Western Balkans, Ukraine, Georgia and other countries. EU can emerge from its crisis by maintaining its confidence, being integrated and more united. (Bergsten, Kirkegaard, 2012) Believes that there may be some member states of EU needing the "political and economic integration" and that the outcome may be in the favour of Brexit or Grexit. This kind of integration will not encourage the EU enlargement in future. There are many supporters (members of the Congress and successive administrations) of the EU integration. They view it as "fostering democratic allies and strong trading partners in Europe" (Feldstein, 2015). (Dawson Witte, 2013) Stated in his paper that US intends to have a partnership with EU and supports the development of "EU defence policy". In doing so, it enhances the NATO capabilities. There are 22 European countries belonging to both EU and NATO (Moravcsik, 2012). There is a strong, trade and investment relationship between EU and US (Klose Weigert, 2013). It was stated by some US officials concerning that the potentially stronger, more united EU could rival U.S. power and prestige (Schimmelfennig, 2014). However, these views could not shape the policies of US towards EU. Concerned with EU challenges, economic and strategic implication policymakers of US are suspecting the EU's ability to be an effective and robust partner of US (Bridwell, 2013). It was asserted by the Obama Administration its opposition to Grexit and Brexit. It is now viewing the possibilities as a huge threat to the relationships of U.S. and EU, as well as the credibility of the EU (Klose Weigert, 2013). US worries also involve the uncertainty regarding the response of international financial market and the potential security ramifications of Greece that is economically destitute and is cut loose from EU and is probable to make close bonding with Russia (Karanikolos et al., 2013). According to (De Grauwe Ji, 2013) many US officials believe in the reliability of EU and US relations keeping in mind its economic and political clout, the fact that U.S. and UK views tend to align on most major foreign policy issues, as well its traditional Atlanticist orientation. Also, other worries i nclude that internal tensions and preoccupations could prevent the EU from focusing on the main U.S. priorities, which are aggression in Ukraine due to Russia, the conflicts in Syria and Iraq, risks and dangers due to Islamic State organisation and concluding the proposed U.S.-EU free trade agreement. Some researchers suggest that politically fragile, economically weak EU could take U.S. attention and resources away from managing strategic challenges such as the rise of China and continued instability in the Middle East (Richardson Mazey, 2015). Conclusively, it can be said that the European Union can survive its current crisis of confidence. It is evident from some other observers, who are contended that in spite of all these current challenges, the EU will continue its commitment to the United States in respect to close and cooperative partnerships. The author has clearly described the consequences of EU crisis on international business and possible scenarios for EU. Based on the measures that it is trying to overcome the crisis and the believe system of the partner countries it is indicated that there is the lower chance of exit of any one countries affiliated to Eurozone. Southern states are recovering but the northern ones are still in weak position. However, the debt crisis is still in its place. There are chances that the rest of the world may receive some economic shock and may spread over coming years. References Ash, T. G. (2012). Crisis of Europe: How the Union Came Together and Why It's Falling Apart, The.Foreign Aff.,91, 2. Bergsten, C. F., Kirkegaard, J. F. (2012). The Coming Resolution of the European Crisis: An Update.Policy Briefs in International Economics, 12-18. Bergsten, C. F., Kirkegaard, J. F. (2012). The Coming Resolution of the European Crisis: An Update.Policy Briefs in International Economics, 12-18. Bonet, L., Donato, F. (2011). The financial crisis and its impact on the current models of governance and management of the cultural sector in Europe.ENCATC Journal of cultural management and policy,1(1), 4-11. Bridwell, L. (2013, July). Fixing the Euro Crisis. InCompetition Forum(Vol. 11, No. 2, p. 54). American Society for Competitiveness. Dawson, M., Witte, F. (2013). Constitutional Balance in the EU after the Euroà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Crisis.The Modern Law Review,76(5), 817-844. De Grauwe, P., Ji, Y. (2013). Self-fulfilling crises in the Eurozone: An empirical test.Journal of International Money and Finance,34, 15-36. Feldstein, M. S. (2015).Ending the Euro Crisis?(No. w20862). National Bureau of Economic Research. Foster, J. B., Magdoff, F. (2009).The great financial crisis: Causes and consequences. NYU Press. Gros, D. (2011). External versus domestic debt in the euro crisis.CEPS policy brief, (243). Gros, D., Mayer, T. (2010). How to deal with sovereign default in Europe: Create the European Monetary Fund now!.CEPS Policy Brief, (202). Habermas, J. (2012).The crisis of the European Union: A response. Polity. Habermas, J. (2012).The crisis of the European Union: A response. Polity. Hall, P. A. (2012). The economics and politics of the euro crisis.German Politics,21(4), 355-371. Hall, P. A. (2012). The economics and politics of the euro crisis.German Politics,21(4), 355-371. Hall, P. A. (2012). The economics and politics of the euro crisis.German Politics,21(4), 355-371. Karanikolos, M., Mladovsky, P., Cylus, J., Thomson, S., Basu, S., Stuckler, D., ... McKee, M. (2013). Financial crisis, austerity, and health in Europe.The Lancet,381(9874), 1323-1331. Klose, J., Weigert, B. (2013).Sovereign yield spreads during the Euro-crisis: Fundamental factors versus redenomination risk(No. 07/2012 [rev.]). Arbeitspapier, Sachverstndigenrat zur Begutachtung der Gesamtwirtschaftlichen Entwicklung. Lane, P. R. (2012). The European sovereign debt crisis.The Journal of Economic Perspectives,26(3), 49-67. Lerbinger, O. (2012).The crisis manager. Routledge. Ludlow, N. P. (2006).The European Community and the crises of the 1960s: Negotiating the gaullist challenge(Vol. 9). London: Routledge. Moravcsik, A. (2012). Europe after the Crisis.Foreign Affairs,91(3), 54-68. Moravcsik, A. (2012). Europe after the Crisis.Foreign Affairs,91(3), 54-68. Pisani-Ferry, J. (2012).The euro crisis and the new impossible trinity(No. 2012/01). Bruegel Policy Contribution. Richardson, J., Mazey, S. (Eds.). (2015).European Union: power and policy-making. Routledge. Schimmelfennig, F. (2014). European integration in the euro crisis: the limits of postfunctionalism.Journal of European Integration,36(3), 321-337.

Why is Network Security Important Essay Sample free essay sample

Computer webs have grown in both size and importance in a really short clip. If the security of the web is compromised. there could be serious effects. such as loss of privateness. larceny of information. and even legal liability. To do the state of affairs even more ambitious. the types of possible menaces to web security are ever germinating. White hat-An person who looks for exposures in systems or webs and so studies these exposures to the proprietors of the system so that they can be fixed. They are ethically opposed to the maltreatment of computing machine systems. A white chapeau by and large focuses on procuring IT systems. whereas a black chapeau ( the antonym ) would wish to interrupt into them. Hacker-A general term that has historically been used to depict a computing machine programming expert. More late. this term is frequently used in a negative manner to depict an person that attempts to derive unauthorised entree to web resources with malicious purpose. We will write a custom essay sample on Why is Network Security Important? Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Black hat-Another term for persons who use their cognition of computing machine systems to interrupt into systems or webs that they are non authorized to utilize. normally for personal or fiscal addition. A cracker is an illustration of a black chapeau. Cracker-A more accurate term to depict person who tries to derive unauthorised entree to web resources with malicious purpose. Phreaker-An person who manipulates the phone web to do it to execute a map that is non allowed. A common end of phreaking is interrupting into the phone web. normally through a payphone. to do free long distance calls. Spammer-An person who sends big measures of unasked e-mail messages. Spammers frequently use viruses to take control of place computing machines and utilize them to direct out their majority messages. Phisher-Uses e-mail or other agencies to flim-flam others into supplying sensitive information. such as recognition card Numberss or watchwords. A phisher masquerades as a sure party that would hold a legitimate demand for the sensitive information. Think Like a AttackerThe attacker’s end is to compromise a web mark or an application running within a web. Many aggressors use this seven-step procedure to derive information and province an onslaught. Measure 1. Perform footprint analysis ( reconnaissance ) . A company web page can take to information. such as the IP references of waiters. From at that place. an aggressor can construct a image of the security profile or â€Å"footprint† of the company. Measure 2. Enumerate information. An aggressor can spread out on the footmark by supervising web traffic with a package sniffer such as Wireshark. happening information such as version Numberss of FTP waiters and mail waiters. A cross-index with exposure databases exposes the applications of the company to possible feats. Measure 3. Manipulate users to derive entree. Sometimes employees choose watchwords that are easy crackable. In other cases. employees can be duped by gifted aggressors into giving up sensitive access-related information. Measure 4. Escalate privileges. After aggressors gain basic entree. they use their accomplishments to increase their web privileges. Measure 5. Gather extra watchwords and secrets. With improved entree privileges. aggressors use their endowments to derive entree to well-guarded. sensitive information. Measure 6. Install back doors. Back doors provide the aggressor with a manner to come in the system without being detected. The most common back door is an unfastened hearing TCP or UDP port. User diagram protocol –connectionless conveyance bed protocol in the TCP/IP protocol stack. Measure 7. Leverage the compromised system. After a system is compromised. an aggressor uses it to present onslaughts on other hosts in the web. Types of Computer CrimeAs security steps have improved over the old ages. some of the most common types of onslaughts have diminished in frequence. while new 1s have emerged. Conceiving of web security solutions begins with an grasp of the complete range of computing machine offense. These are the most normally reported Acts of the Apostless of computing machine offense that have web security deductions: Insider maltreatment of web entreeVirusMobile device larcenyPhishing where an organisation is fraudulently represented as the transmitter Instant messaging abuseDenial of serviceUnauthorized entree to informationBots within the organisationLarceny of client or employee informationsMaltreatment of radio webSystem incursionFiscal fraudPassword sniffingKey loggingWebsite disfigurementMisuse of a public web applicationLarceny of proprietary informationExploiting the DNS waiter of an organisationTelecom fraudSabotage Computer offenses that can be mitigated by effectual and argus-eyed web direction: Insider maltreatment of web entreeDenial of serviceSystem incursionPassword sniffing Open versus Closed Networks–open webs: License everything that is non explicitly denied:Easy to configure and administrateEasy for terminal users to entree web resourcesSecurity costs: least expensive –close webs: That which is non explicitly permitted is denied:Most hard to configure and administrateMost hard for terminal users to entree resourcesSecurity cost: most expensive –Restrictive: Combination of specific permissions and specific limitations: Most hard to configure and administrateMost hard for terminal users to entree resourcesSecurity cost: most expensive – VulnirabilitiesVulnerability is the grade of failing which is built-in in every web and device. This includes routers. switches. desktops. waiters. and even security devices. There are three primary exposures or failings: Technological failingsConfiguration failingsSecurity policy failings The four categories of physical menaces are: Hardware threats-Physical harm to waiters. routers. switches. cabling works. and workstations Environmental threats-Temperature extremes ( excessively hot or excessively cold ) or humidness extremes ( excessively wet or excessively dry ) Electrical threats-Voltage spikes. deficient supply electromotive force ( blackouts ) . innate power ( noise ) . and entire power loss Maintenance threats-Poor handling of cardinal electrical constituents ( electrostatic discharge ) . deficiency of critical spare parts. hapless cabling. and hapless labeling. Menaces to NetworksEarlier in this chapter the common computing machine offenses that have deductions for web security were listed. These offenses can be grouped into four primary categories of menaces to webs: Unstructured MenacesUnstructured menaces consist of largely inexperient persons utilizing easy available hacking tools. such as shell books and watchword crackers. Structured MenacesStructured menaces come from persons or groups that are more extremely motivated and technically competent. External MenacesExternal menaces can originate from persons or organisations working outside of a company who do non hold authorized entree to the computing machine systems or web. Internal MenacesInternal menaces occur when person has authorized entree to the web with either an history or physical entree.p. e proper clinching in soldierly humanistic disciplines.Lightweight. portable. highly lasting A ; superb floor soaking up! Clenching the right manner is really of import in karate techniques. both for proficient and technology ward hit. Fist rule must be dense. for it:1. Fold the index finger to small finger. until the full base mancapai fingertips fingers. 2. Continue turn uping the fingers to press each finger with a strong base. 3. Last key with the pollex folded into the so pressing the index finger and in-between finger.

The Two Hemispheres of the Brain

The Two Hemispheres of the Brain Human brain forms a comparatively small but very important part of a human being. It practically controls every action that a person performs. Consciously or subconsciously all other body organs depend on the brain to behave in any particular way. The brain is therefore a crucial organ, and if anything happens to it, the whole body will come to a stop. Notably, the brain is divided into two portions with each having various distinct roles. Nevertheless, sometimes it is very difficult to differentiate between the functions of the two theories.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Two Hemispheres of the Brain specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Arguably, assignments and various functions are balanced between the two parts of the brain to ensure maximum output. The two parts of the brain are known to work in close connection thus making them almost similar. Still, the functions executed by the two parts are different. To begin with, the right part of the brain conducts intuitive, subjective and holistic thinking (Luys, 2012). This means that it is bound to be random in thinking. On the other hand, the left part of the brain carries out thinking in a logical, rational and objective way. Therefore, human beings are either based towards subjectivity or objectivity depending on the part of the brain that they use most. It should be stated that the left hemisphere is responsible for actions of the right muscles. On the same note, the left hemisphere controls the sensory activities and the right motor. For example, handwriting and language are controlled by the left hemisphere. As a result, people who tend to rely more on the left brain part are usually very comfortable with language (Darvas, 2007). On the other hand, the right hemisphere controls speech and hearing processes. Therefore, people who depend more on the right side of the brain have good verbal expressions. Another difference between the t wo sides of the brain is that the left side deals with information in pieces. Once information is received, the left hemisphere will break it down and then tries to understand each bit individually. Moreover, this part of the brain will arrange the various bits of the information in a chronological manner before drawing conclusions (Annett, 2013). As a result, the left part of the brain will take a bit longer to respond to an issue. On the other hand, the right part of the brain considers any information wholesomely. Details are not given much attention and thus it starts with the answer before getting to the main problem.Advertising Looking for term paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The brain can also be categorized on the way it conducts its day-to-day tasks. The right hemisphere is known for the random manner in which it executes its duties. It is carrying out many assignments at the same time. Without any form of arrangement, the right brain starts with any task but can move to the next without necessarily completing the first one. As a result, it performs a huge number of tasks in the end but not necessarily the most important ones. On the contrary, the left brain is systematic in its approach to tasks (Noite, 2008). It always has a schedule of the duties to be accomplished in their order of preference. Consequently, it completes its tasks as per its list and does so effectively. Similarly, the left hemisphere works well with symbols. As a result, letters and words do not become a problem to it. It prefers distinctions between events and characters. Therefore, working with mathematical notations is carried out by the left brain. It is also very good at memorizing and is usually tasked with the role of retrieving information whenever required. Al Ghraibe (2012) finds in his study that repetitive learning and thinking processes are based on the left part of the brain , while the right hemisphere works well with tangible materials and things that can be felt (Al Ghraibeh, 2012). This hemisphere enjoys words that form a sentence and prefers calculated mathematical examples to the notations. Linking one event to another is the way this part of the brain works and therefore connectedness of issues is better to it. This brings about the difference we see in human beings (Nunez, 2010). While there are people who read once and understand issues, others have to see pictures for them to remember well what they have learnt. On the same note, people who rely more on the left hemisphere of the brain can easily be given a formula and then do a calculation. However, people who rely more on the right hemisphere have to see calculations where formulas are used in order to understand them. When solving a problem, the two hemispheres of the brain again exhibit differences. The left hemisphere does not stop until all decisions have proof. In other words, it uses l ogic to come up with any decision. It plans and structures any problem in order to apply concrete and credible information. As a result, this part of the brain prefers multiple choice tests because then it can be able to logically come up with an answer. Not only does the left hemisphere look at the causes of any problem, but also at the effects of the same (Northoff, 2004). According to Al Ghraibeh (2012), logical intelligence is related to the left hemisphere. However, the right part of the brain is always guided by emotions in any problem-solving situation.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on The Two Hemispheres of the Brain specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It does not take into consideration what information is available but rather takes what feels like the right thing to do. Moreover, the right part of the brain does not like giving straightforward answers on any issue. So, it prefers open ended questions whic h give room for discussion. In this regard, while the left part of the brain covers talking and writing, the right hemisphere prefers drawings because they have room for manipulation. Arguably, the left part of the brain has no problems using words for expression. People who tend to rely more on the left side of the brain are good communicators and can make good orators. The conducted studies show that linguistic intelligence is influenced by the left hemisphere (Al Ghraibeh, 2012). On the other hand, the right hemisphere of the brain has a lot of difficulty explaining issues. Even when the picture is clear to this part of the brain about what should be said, getting the correct words to use is a problem. In this regard, people who use the right hemisphere easily get emotional when explaining themselves (Mildner, 2008). As a result, these people usually have to get a backup of every issue. They are highly likely to make notes of what they would like to say. Additionally, the left do minated people are more obedient to the rule in place at any scenario. They do not want to be on the wrong at any given instance. As a result, they will try to know every detail regarding the laws that are present wherever they are. Due to their fear of breaking rules, these people will always set their own rules and follow them even if they are not applicable. People whose left hemisphere dominates will always want to fit in every situation perfectly and will therefore adjust in under different circumstances (McGilChrist, 2012). On the contrary, the right part of the brain is driven by imagination and emotions. Thus, people, whose right part of the brain dominates, learn well by attaching emotions to various aspects. When they have no emotional attachment to something, it becomes difficult for them to remember it. In many instances, they do not give much thought to the repercussions of their emotional attachments. Considering various differences existing between the two hemispheres of the brain, it should be noted that they have several similarities. Notably, both parts of the brain execute their functions with a high degree of interdependency. Information like sensory observations is transmitted equally between the two hemispheres of the brain (Gazzaniga, 2000).Advertising Looking for term paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In fact, it has been proved that people whose one part of the brain has been removed due to sickness usually recover and carry out their daily chores effectively. This implies that the remaining part of the brain takes up the functions of the other part. However, it should be stated that there are some differences in the way these people behave. As far as the structure of the brain is concerned, the two hemispheres are almost the same. They are also connected by nerve fibers to enhance communication between the two. References Al Ghraibeh, A. M. (2012). Brain Based Learning and its relation with Multiple Intelligences. International journal of Psychological Studies, 4(1), 103-113. Annett, M. (2013). Handedness and Brain Asymmetry: The Right Shift Theory. Oxford, England: Psychology Press. Darvas, G. (2007). Symmetry: Cultural-historical and Ontological Aspects of Science-Arts Relations; the Natural and Man-Made World in an Interdisciplinary approach. New York, NY: Springer. Gazzanig a, M. S. (2000). Cerebral Specialization and Interhemispheric Communication: Does the Corpus Callosum Enable the Human Condition? Brain Journal of Neurology, 123(7), 1293-1326. Luys, J. B. (2012). The Brain and Its Functions. Memphis, TN: General Books LLC. McGilchrist, A. (2012). The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Mildner, V. (2008). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Human Communication. New York, NY: Taylor Francis. Noite, J. (2008). The Human Brain: with Student Consult Online Access. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsivier Health Sciences. Northoff, G. (2004). Philosophy of the Brain: The Brain Problem. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing. Nunez, P. L. (2010). Brain, Mind, and the Structure of Reality. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Outline the factors which could contribute to employee stress in the Essay

Outline the factors which could contribute to employee stress in the workplace. Discuss what possible measures could be taken to reduce stress in employees - Essay Example Yassi asserts that there are five basic factors that result in workplace stress, these include: factors that are inconsistent with the job, position in the institute, development of career, relationships that are interpersonal in nature and structure of the organization (MINER, 2002, p.344). The first factor is related to an employee’s ability to cope with number of operational working hours, desired rate of production, the environment of the organization that can be seen, and the quality of work expected by the mangers of the organization. For example: individuals who work late at night experience deterioration of health due to sleepless nights. The second factors are related to the hierarchical level of the organization in which an employee is operating. Individuals who are situated at the top level of an organization are expected to experience more stress as their responsibility is much greater than those working in the lower level of the management (BLONNA, 2010, p.53). Fo r example: Those in the top level of the management have to perform several tasks at the same time. The third factor is related to the how secure the job is for an individual and whether there are promotional benefits offered by the organization or not. For example: employees are unsure whether they will be able to keep their jobs if changes in technology are implemented by the organization. The fourth factor of stress is related to the relationship of the employee with other employees of the organization and the management level of the organization. An organization itself is a society where different elements have to interact with each other to ensure that the entire unit operates in a collective manner. If employees do not interact with each other and help each other, work pressure increases and results in stress. Organizational environment is a major

Service Marketing and Product Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Service Marketing and Product Marketing - Essay Example Example, if a car manufacturer sells extended warranty services against a car model the marketing aspects of such services are related with the performance of the product in the market segment and hence if the product is already selling successfully, the associated service packages can be sold without many problems. However, if services are sold independent of products then their marketing strategies need to be different. Coviello and Brodie et al. (2002. pp42) presented an empirical generalization that the companies selling products engage with their customers in more transactional manner whereas the companies selling services engage with their customers in more relational manner. In fact if the work done by these researchers is analyzed closely, it reveals that the fundamental difference lies in the way the methodology of marketing is chosen - whether for products or for services. The researchers presented four methodologies of marketing - Transaction Marketing, Database Marketing, Interaction Marketing and Network Marketing. The choice of markets depends upon the way cash flow is expected from the consumers to the firm - one time or recurring. Any marketing strategy targeting regular cash flow from consumers will prefer relationship marketing. Some marketing strategists prefer to adopt pluralistic approach of accompanying both relationship & transactional marketing depending upon the demands of the market segments. Example, low cost products & services may be promoted more through transactional marketing while premium products & services may be promoted more through relationship marketing. Database & network marketing are relatively complex and hence are of lesser preference among marketing professionals. Is Product or Services marketing fundamentally related Coviello and Brodie et al. (2002. pp42) argued that empirically the services & product marketing areas have been treated differently. The engagement channels are more in services marketing than products marketing. Moreover, usage of IT enabled tools result in more impact on customers in the services marketing than product marketing. This is because the expectations of customers from services are more complex than from products. Krishnan and Ramaswamy et al. (1999. pp 1197-1200) presented a detailed research on customer satisfaction in banking & financial services industry. They presented that unlike manufacturing industries that produce fully tangible products, the financial services industry offers productized services that are delivered through multiple channels to the customers and hence the span of customer expectations widens given that their frequency of interactions with the companies are much more. In case of products, a consumer may call the service lines only if a fault or defect is detected or else some usability features are not clear. These transactions are one time in nature that may occur few times in a year. However, in services industries the customers interact with the companies too often whereby their experience in every interaction counts in building the perceptions. Hence, in case of service

Reducing Oil Consumption Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reducing Oil Consumption - Essay Example While much effort has been directed towards this cause, it is imperative to note that the challenge is still eminent and this calls for even greater effort considering that the United States is the largest consumer of oil in the world (Butts, 58). Higher taxes One economically efficient way of reducing oil consumption across the United States is to increases the tax on oil products. Indeed, there are always many opportunities for oil conservation by the public such as reducing mileage. However, many people do not care to follow such strategies since they can easily afford the oil. This strategy will help in reducing industrial consumption of oil and forcing people to be more economical with oil. Higher taxes would translate into higher prices for the oil and people would therefore strive to limit their consumption of oil as much as possible. This would even call for the use of oil alternatives in situations where it is possible. Efficient Transportation Transportation is one sector t hat consumes a great amount of oil in the United States. Considering that many people drive their own cars, it is expected that oil consumption is indeed high. Unlike Europe, the public transportation system in the United States is not well developed. Many people own cars and this greatly increases gasoline consumption in the country. In this regard, the public transportation system should be redesigned effectively. High-speed trains are an effective ways of reducing the use of gasoline in the country. These trains are powered by electricity and travel and very fast speeds. In the same way, the development of hybrid cars should be fast-tracked. Cars that use electric propulsion should be developed and mass produced. In this case, much of the road and air transport would be substituted by high-speed rails. These trends can further be used in freight transportation and this would greatly reduce the consumption of oil in the country (Woodside, 98). Oil Alternatives There has been much ongoing research on the use of biofuels as an option to the crude oil. Indeed, biofuels have been successful in countries like Brazil which placed much focus on its production. Considering that the transportation sector is a very large consumer of oil, biofuels would come in handy as an option to oil. The major challenge in this respect is the fact that vehicles that use biofuels are still few in the country. It is estimated that a combined use of biofuels and electricity in internal combustion engines can reduce the importation of oil by more than half. In the same way, other forms of renewable energy like solar and wind have not fully been exploited in the United States. The installation of more windmills and solar panels would provide much power that would reduce the demand for oil. The focus of these programs is therefore to provide cheaper energy options and educate the people on the need to use these options as opposed to oil (Woodside, 78). Research on renewable energy source s should be the major concern for policy makers as they would facilitate the reduction of oil consumption. Recycling While it might not seem much obvious, recycling is an important way of reducing the consumption o

Environment Essay: The evolution of the linkage between the environment and human rights

Environment Essay: The evolution of the linkage between the environment and human rights The United Nations (UN) Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, declared that: mans environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rightseven the right to life itself. Today, the relationship between the environment and human rights has long been recognised and has evolved in many ways. This essay will attempt to analyse the connection between the environment and human rights. Because of limitations on length, it will broadly place human rights within the framework of a holistic view of development (i.e., one that lends importance to more that simply economic development). It will also discuss their relationship within the discourse of Sustainable Development, a principal concept linking the environment and human rights. The UN Conference on the Human Environment was held at a time when development discourse was dominated by theories of dependency, world systems, and modes of production. The Stockholm conference importantly acknowledged that environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, and in that capacity established not just the importance of sustaining the environment because it provides for life and basic human rights, but also the importance of sustaining basic human rights in an attempt to defend the environment. Though the need to protect the environment had long been recognised, this conference paved the way for the environment and development to be discussed as a single issue something that did not occur until the Brundtland Report in 1987. The Brundtland Report launched the term Sustainable Development (SD), or development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs (WCED, 1987: 43). Although it is often regarded as a dangerously slippery concept (The Economist, 2002) the common characteristic of most definitions of the term is the emphasis on equity both across and within generations. Barrow (1995: 17) identifies ten themes that characterise conventional SD: maintenance of ecological integrity; integration of environmental care and development; adoption of an international stance; satisfaction of basic human needs for all; stress for normative planning; stress on application of science to development problems; acceptance of some economic growth; attaching a proper value to the natural and cultural environment; the adoption of a long-term view of development; and, again a call for inter- as well as intra- generational equality SD has introduced and affirmed many new concepts into the development arena including, but not limited to, a rights-based approach to development and the importance of the environment. The environment played a central role in the Brundtland Report, and it was subsequently attacked for being eco-centric. The Brundtland Report was followed up by the UN Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Though the Rio conference set in motion a trend towards human (rather than environmental) rights, it still held the environment in the limelight. Moreover, rights to information, participation and remedies in respect to environmental conditions formed the focus of the Rio declaration (Shelton, 2002: 2), thus accentuating the importance of human rights in environmental protection. Since Rio, concern for the environment has (rightly) continued to grow. However, the tendency toward concern for human rather than environmental rights within the sustainable agenda (i.e., a growing concern for the intra- (as opposed to inter-) generational equality) has continued as it is acknowledge that we cannot ignore the deprived today in trying to prevent deprivation in the future (Anand and Sen, 2000: 2030). Many of the alternate definitions of SD have tried, with varying degrees, of success, to resolve the seemingly contradictory notion inherent to SD development frequently involved capitalist or industrial development, and thus the reference to sustainability is certainly then undermined by the paradox of what this type of development means for the environment (Redclift, 1987). Conventional wisdom holds that Southern nations are too preoccupied with economic survival to worry about environmental quality (Dunlap: 1994: 115), something that was, to some extent, reflected in the Rio conference. Governments of developing countries wanted to discuss the idea of development, and the governments of richer countries that of sustainability (to the neglect of development) (Dunlap: 1994: 115). Though economic development need not be unequivocally associated with environmental degradation it must also be recognised that nations (or perhaps more importantly, people within nations) will rightly put more focus on sustaining peoples well-being than the environments. In short, though some government policies in the developing world may be viewed as inconclusive because they fall short of protecting natural resources, such seemingly irrational policies may reflect economic necessity in countries that have little choice but to perpetuate practices that contribute to environme ntal degradation in the absence of alternate sources of income (Bryant and Bailey, 1997: 59). This view of environmental protection versus human rights was pertinent at the UN World Summit on Sustainable Development (or Rio + 10), held in Johannesburg in 1992. In the run-up to the summit African leaders made it clear that they expected to talk about jobs, not birds (The Economist, 2002b). The Economist stated that without concrete or pragmatic action to fight poverty, fine words on greenery, global warming or fish stocks will come to naught (The Economist, 2002b). In other words, sustaining deprivation cannot be our goal (Anand and Sen, 2000: 2030), and whilst surely the conditions for most of the worlds poor can be sustained, the issue is that they should not be (Marcuse, 1998: 106). SD is often received with hostility in LDCs where it is seen as an attempt to challenge the developing worlds elemental right to develop: after all, grinding poverty, it turns out, is pretty sustainable (The Economist, 2002b). The achievement of environmental protection and respect for human rights can only be reached if we do not succumb to the notion that they are mutually exclusive. Human life, and human rights, cannot exist without a relatively healthy environment, and the environment cannot be protected without the acceptance and protection of basic human rights. Though aspects of each may at times need to be sacrificed for progress in the other, it remains vital to navigate the obstacles and move towards a sustainable world. Bibliography Anand, S. and Sen, A. (2000) Human Development and Economic Sustainability, World Development, 28 (12), 2029-2049.Barrow, C. J. (1995) Sustainable Development: Concept, Value and Practice, Third World Planning Review, 17(4), 369-386.Bryant, R. L. and Bailey, S. (1997) Third World Political Ecology, London: Routledge.Dunlap, R. (1994) International Attitudes Towards Environment and Development, in Helge Ole Bergensen and Georg Parmann (eds.), Green Globe Yearbook of International Co-operation on Environment and Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press), 115-126.Marcuse, P. (1998) Sustainability is not enough, Environment and Urbanization, 10(2), 103-111.Redclift, M. (1987) Sustainability: life chances and livelihood, London: Routledge.Shelton, D. (2002) Human Rights and Environment Issues in Multilateral Treaties Adopted between 1991 and 2001, background paper for the Joint UNEP-OHCHR Expert Seminar on Human Rights and the Environment, Geneva, 14-16 January 2002.The E conomist (2002) The Johannesburg Summit: Sustaining the poors development, 29 August 2002.The Economist (2002b) Africa expects to talk about jobs, not birds, 22 August 2002.WCED (1987) Our Common Future, The Brundtland Report, Oxford: Oxford University Press. State Of Nature: Hobbes And Locke State Of Nature: Hobbes And Locke Thomas Hobbes and John Locke applied fundamentally similar methodologies and presuppositions to create justifications for statehood; both have a belief in a universal natural law made known to man through the exercise of reason, which leads to political theories that define the rise of states. From beginning to end, Hobbes and Locke struggle to answer the essential question: Can sovereignty be divided? Though the two authors answer this question by going through the same processes, they begin with distinct notions of the state of nature, thereby reaching divergent conclusions: two nuanced versions of the social contract. For Hobbes, sovereignty is absolutist and governance can only succeed if power is concentrated in a monarch. On the other hand, Locke envisions a radically different structure for government, with a strict division between legislative and executive forces. At a glance, it is difficult to determine which author better answers the question of sovereignty, but by compar ing the warrants beneath their claims, one comes to discover that Locke is correct. Indeed, sovereignty must be divided. To start, one must analyze the model of undivided sovereignty. Hobbess argument for the state is that at some point, constituents of society made a contract amongst themselves to surrender most of their natural right up to a single man, the monarch, establishing a sovereign power in their newly formed commonwealth (Hobbes 110). By permutation, children must obey the sovereign because they are subject to their parents by the natural law, meaning subjection to the sovereign power passes on from one generation to the next (Hobbes 127-35). What constitutes a commonwealth is a group of individuals and their progeny, who are all subject to the sovereign power. This, however, begs the question of exactly what constitutes the sovereign power, since natural right can be forfeited in both different ways and in varying degrees. Hobbes provides two answers to this question, the latter directly expanding upon the former. The first is that Hobbes defines, albeit vaguely, that sovereignty is an entity bearing the person (Hobbes 105-110) of those subject thereto. Second, he argues in a more concrete manner, that sovereignty is the extensive set of powers to make laws, reward and punish subjects arbitrarily, choose counselors and ministers, establish and enforce class distinctions, judge controversies, wage war and make peace, and so on (Hobbes 113-15). Hobbes claims that by giving up their person to the sovereign, subjects forfeit the right to make moral judgments because every act of the sovereign is ostensibly performed by the subjects. The monarch becomes the sole, absolute judge of whatsoever he shall think necessary to be done, both beforehandà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and, when peace and security are lost, for the recovery of the same and what opinions and doctrines are averse, and what conducing, to peace (Hobbes 113 ). In other words, citizens may never criticize the sovereign, since subjects surrender their very ability to judge whether the sovereign power is acting towards the goals for which they established it. This is a major contradiction in Hobbess theory, for it seems strange and inconsistent that men of the commonwealth are wise enough to establish a state for mutual benefit (Hobbes 106), but straightaway upon entering the social contract, lose the ability to accurately judge whether their condition is good or bad. Although there is such a clear inconsistency within the contract, Hobbes has a two-pronged defense ready. The first is in Chapter XVIII, where he asserts that once covenanted, men cannot lawfully make a new covenant amongst themselves to be obedient to any other, in any thing whatsoever, without permission from the sovereign (Hobbes 110-1). With the way that a Hobbesian social contract works, this claim makes perfect sense; if a covenant is formed by submitting ones person to the sovereign, men cannot form a new covenant independent of the sovereign because they have already given their single person-hood up. Following the person argument, Hobbes introduces the idea that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦because the right of bearing the person of them all is given to him they make sovereign by covenant only of one to anotherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Hobbes 111). The philosophers second defense then, is the fact that the sovereign is not party to the actual contract, which means that the monarch can never breach it, no matter the consequences. For Hobbes, the contract is the permanent transfer of person from a group of people to an external man, not a retractable agreement among a group of people to obey one of their party. The agreement, strangely, is only amongst the governed their agreement is to all equally forfeit their person and aligns with Hobbess notion that there must be an external, superior enforcer to contracts. Yet, it is unclear why social contracts should be irrevocable: in Hobbess own account of contracts (Hobbes 79-88), a contract is always renounceable if the parties involved agree so, meaning there should be nothing stopping subjects from uniformly nullifying the contract. Hobbes would respond that social contracts are unique, for the subjects have given up their right to make contracts (and therefore to break them) without the sovereigns permission within the terms. This, however, begs another question: why is the ability to make epistemological and moral judgments a necessary forfeiture to establishing the commonwealth? It doesnt seem logical that the right to break contracts must be a necessary forfeiture included within the person that one gives to the sovereign. After all, it falls under a set of negative-rights that requires a negative action (IE, a violation of the terms of contract) to occur before it can be used. Hobbes simply refuses to acknowledge the binary choice he creat es between civil war and good government is specious at best. The agreement to forfeit person is made equally amongst subjects to escape the state of nature, but even if the sovereign is not a part of the contract, the fact that a citizen doesnt receive the benefits termed within the contract ought to justify breaking the contract because other citizens may be receiving those benefits. If so, wouldnt it be just for a subject to break the contract, not with the sovereign, but with other subjects? Moving on from Hobbess derivation of sovereignty, one comes upon his formulation of sovereignty, the terms of his social contract. What is most shocking is that sovereignty is indivisible (Hobbes 115): the foundational elements of rule cannot be separated. All the powers of sovereignty must reside in the same body. A division of government, to Hobbes, would be redundant at best. From a theoretical point of view, when push comes to shove, a part of government, namely whichever has control of the army, will be revealed as the real holder of sovereign power precisely because it can seize control of the other powers. However, control of the army is nonexistent without the ability to fund it, so taxing and the coining of money is also essential. Imagine a scenario of rebellion or invasion in a divided government: an external force capable of protecting the taxing/treasury department would eventually rout the branch that controls the military. In order to ensure a stable government, then, it would be necessary to concentrate power at one locus using the example of the military any division would allow for opposing factions to gut one another, albeit indecisively. Combining the fact that sovereignty is indivisible with the fact that the social contract is made amongst subjects (that there is no bond between subjects and the sovereign), one arrives at Hobbess insistence that rebellion is never justifiable. Sovereignty is located in a person and not obedience to a person, so any repudiation of that obedience cannot dissolve the bond of sovereignty, for there is no bond to begin with. Nevertheless, this descriptive account of separating sovereign powers is not a normative claim that it ought not be done. This is perhaps Hobbess biggest mistake, for he believes that when, therefore, these two powers oppose one another, the commonwealth cannot but be in great danger of civil war and dissolution, for example, that the civil authorityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and the spiritual inevitably clash if divided (Hobbes 216). That is, we ought not separate the two, for sovereignty is conceived of as something that one simply has, meaning several branches of government would constantly be in contest for possession of sovereignty. However, this is an excellent example of the is-ought fallacy, for Hobbes bases the fact that historically, a division of government has always resulted in a collapse to monarchy, and attempts to re-justify the existing norms. The fact that civil and spiritual authority have historically clashed does not mean that they cannot avoid conflict in the future. If so, then Hobbess reason that they ought be combined falls apart. In essence, his claim is not normative, but only descriptive. Locke begins his attack on Hobbess concept of sovereignty by advancing a different conception of the state of nature. For Hobbes, in the state of nature à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it is manifest that during the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war (Hobbes 76), where à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦nothing can be unjust for where there is no common power, there is no law; where no law, no injustice (Hobbes 78). It is in Chapter XIII that he famously notes that the life of man is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short, a product of the condition of warà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(in which case everyone is governed by his own reasonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[where] man has a right to everything, even to one anothers body (Hobbes 80). It is from this anarchic view that Hobbes departs to create a theory of absolutist sovereignty. Individual rights, ironically, conflict to the point where there are no rights in the state of nature. To solve this proble m, Hobbess model forfeits person to an individual, because even two individuals two rulers with person will have conflicting rights claims. On the other hand, Locke paints a calmer picture of the state of nature, arguing that the state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, whichà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦teaches all mankindà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions (Locke 9). Locke attack on Hobbess descriptive analysis of the state of nature is particularly damning because it has never occurred. Locke furthers that his notion of the state of nature is historical, that great societies began in the way that his theory described. He cites that the beginning of Rome and Venice were by the uniting of several free and independent of one another, amongst whom there was no natural superiority or subjection (Locke 54). This is because Locke believes that this moral nature has been instilled in humanity by an infinitely wise makerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦sharing all in one community of nature, there cannot be supposed any such subordination (Locke 9). Unlike Hobb es, who believes there is no ethical frame for punishment during the state of nature, Locke argues that transgressing the law of nature means one declares himself to live by another rule than that of reason and common equity, which is that measure God has set to the actions of men (Locke 10). Locke believes that every man hath a right to punish the offender, and be executioner of the law of nature to criminals in the face of God. From a philosophically rigorous perspective, Lockes justifications are a copout to constructing a normative frame. But at a descriptive level, he may be correct: both Hobbes and Locke agree that it is through reason that mankind transcends the state of nature and enters a state of sovereignty. An elementary comparison of these two versions of the state of nature boils down to the fact that Hobbess interpretation is one that begins with a lack of reason and Lockes starts with reason programmed into mankind by a maker. Is it not possible that the Lockes state of nature simply follows Hobbess? Indeed, in Hobbess model, man must come upon reason prior to entering the social contract, meaning as a collective, they must eventually reach some form of Lockes state of nature. Whether God exists or not, a social consciousness must develop for both authors to successfully continue their theories. This returns us to the epistemological contradiction presented earlier in the fourth paragraph: why do men lose their ability to analyze the benefits of subjugation to a sovereign, if they needed to attain this level of rational deliberation to have accepted the social contract to begin with? It is because Hobbes ignores this concern, but Locke answers it (albeit with God, rather than a development of rationality, as I suggest), that Lockes interpretation of sovereignty is far more convincing. It is easiest to discuss Locke by making a series of modifications on Hobbess theory of sovereignty. Of course, the difference between the two theories is far more complicated, but in regards to the thesis, it is sufficient to identify three very closely-related, key differences. First, Locke dismisses Hobbess assertion (which I have showed to be contradictory multiple times) that subjects give up the right, in fact, the ability, to judge their sovereign when moving from the state of nature to sovereignty. Effectively, Locke makes the contract a two-way agreement instead of a one-way subjection, termed in his works as fiduciary power in Chapter XIII. Second, for Locke, ultimate sovereignty resides always in the people. One on hand, the supreme sovereign will always be God, but beneath his throne, men can delegate power to one another, but there will never be a permanent hierarchy of power. The supreme power of the legislature is amassed from a conditional grant by the people; every m an is bound by its laws, notwithstanding disagreement. By extension of this logic, Locke makes two foundational claims of his notion of sovereignty, which Hobbes does not adopt: one is that no part of the sovereign government will ever be above the law, the other is that power can be retracted from the government at any time, pending agreement of the people (these derivations are explored in detail in Chapters VIII and IX). The third and, perhaps most important, difference is that for Hobbes, sovereignty is a perpetual, indivisible power belonging to a particular individual. Indeed, this disagreement is the crux of this paper. For Locke, there are a variety of powers necessary for the protection of the public good, just as in Hobbes, but there is no need to unite them all in one body. Here Locke presents idea of the sovereignty of law itself: there is no need, that the legislative should be always in being, not having always business to do (Locke 76). The laws have a constant and lasting force, and need a perpetual execution that is provided by the executive power (Locke 76). While Hobbes agrees to the need of these aspects of sovereignty, he refuses to divide them. Locke, on the other hand, demonstrates that a division of labor can very feasibly exist, especially because he touches upon the idea of a natural power that pertains to other duties. Federative power, which relates to the power of war and pe ace, leagues and alliances, and all transactions (Locke 76), could easily be invested in entirely separate bodies from both the executive and legislative powers. The last question to answer, then, is whether the division of power is good. Luckily, Locke tackles this issue, arguing that the inconveniences of absolute power, which monarchy in succession was apt to lay claim to could never compete with balancing the power of government, by placing several parts of it in different hands for in doing so, citizens neither felt the oppression of tyrannical dominion, nor did the fashion of the age, nor their possessions, or way of livingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦give them any reason to apprehend or provide against it (Locke 57). For Locke sovereignty is the supreme power on loan from the people to the legislative to set laws that look after the public good by dividing duties amongst the executive and other governmental agencies. Power is easily, helpfully, and safely split up into different bodies: easily due to Lockes dismissal of Hobbess contradictory objection to doing so, helpfully because the division of labor allows for increased efficiency and greater pr oductivity, and safely because the division of powers acts as a set of checks and balances to protect the people from arbitrary abuse. Just as it seems that the question Can sovereignty be divided? is answered, a concession of sorts to Hobbes appears with the concept of prerogative, a powerful modification of the way Lockes theory functions in practice. Locke concedes in Chapter XIV that the natural generality of law makes it inapplicable to certain cases and unable to cover every eventuality. The executive is therefore invested with prerogative, the power to act according to discretion, for the public good, without the prescription of the law, and sometimes even against it (Locke 84). It is possible that Hobbes would see this as an admission that Lockes legislative theory is flawed, that the executive does indeed hold supreme power, as both creator and enforcer of laws. This, however, would be a serious misinterpretation. In many ways, Locke disagrees with Hobbes most sharply on this point. Lockes emphasis on the need of governance to provide for the public good is so strong that he argues any violation of the social contract, by the sovereignty, would be grounds for the dissolution of government. He notes that citizens will be willing to cope with the application of prerogative as long as it aligns with the public good, even if they recognize that there is no legal precedence for the actions. While Lockes discussion of prerogative initially appears to be a return to Hobbesian absolutism, it is their most essential disagreement. In Hobbess theory, prerogative is sovereign authority, with no external check. When the sovereigns prerogative fails to lead towards the public good, subjects have no recourse but simply accept things. For Locke, prerogative is a minor modification of the authority delegated from the people to the legislative and thence to the executive. It is not crucial to the existence of g overnment because should subjects find that the executives application of prerogative does not lead to the public good, they can simply retract authority from the sovereignty. When compared with the work of Thomas Hobbes, John Lockes social contract theory comprehensively proves that government can be separated into several branches. By comparing the steps in their methodologies, along with analyzing their different starting points, one arrives at the conclusion that Locke is right. As this paper progressed, it was revealed that Hobbes made two main objections to a divided sovereignty: first, his notion of the forfeiture of person and second, his negative view of human behavior in the state of nature. Hobbess latter objection was easily answered back by comparing Lockes interpretation of the state of nature and demonstrating that the standard of reason created a double bind for Hobbes. Either his state of nature transitioned into a Lockean state of nature, which would then progress to sovereignty, or, a jump must occur from a Hobbesian state of nature straight into absolute sovereignty, which creates a number of contradictions. The former objection was ans wered on multiple levels, ranging from the is-ought fallacy to Lockes strong defense of a system of sovereign checks-and-balances. By juxtaposing Hobbes and Lockes social contract theories, one can decisively conclude that sovereignty can be divided, not only to two branches, but to as many as necessary for the public good. The version of Leviathan cited in this work is the Edwin Curley edited edition. The version of Second Treatise is the same as the one noted on the syllabus.

A Freudian Analysis of Voltaires Candide Essay -- Candide Voltaire F

A Freudian Analysis of Voltaire's Candide      Ã‚  Ã‚   In Civilization and its Discontents, Sigmund Freud refers to the important role that love plays in the world of Man. Love certainly plays an important role in Voltaire's Candide; throughout Candide's journeys, a constant factor is his love for Lady Cunegonde and his desire to be with her. Freud writes "the way of life which makes love the centre of everything [...] comes naturally to all of us," (Freud, p. 29). Candide's love for Cunegonde is the driving force of his life from the moment they are parted at the beginning of the novel until they are bonded in marriage at the end. Throughout his experiences, Candide continues to think about Cunegonde. Even after narrowly surviving the Bulgar-Abar war, Candide's thoughts are still about Cunegonde (Voltaire, p. 26). "We are never so helplessly unhappy as when we have lost our love object," (Freud, p. 29). Man is never more vulnerable as when the person he has chosen as the object of his love is taken from him. When Candide is at Eldorado, where no-one goes hungry or has any needs which go unfulfilled, he tells his companion Cacambo, "'I shall never be happy without Lady Cunegonde,'" (Voltaire, p. 82). Candide found, it would seem, the one place on Earth where there is no suffering from poverty, war, or injustice. He and Cacambo could have lived long and fulfilling lives in Eldorado, but Candide insists on returning to his beloved Cunegonde. When Candide and Cunegonde are at last reunited, Cunegonde asks Candide "[what] has happened to you since that innocent kiss you gave me?" (Voltaire, p. 40). The kiss, which Cunegonde describes as innocent, cost Candide dearly; her brother the Baron "drove Candide from the house w... ...is largely responsible for our misery and we should be much happier if we gave it up and returned to primitive conditions," (Freud, p. 33). Candide realizes at the end of the novel that the formula for being content is simple: "We must go and work in the garden," (Voltaire, p. 144). When Man does not have to fight the rules of civilization, his life is a much simpler lot. Many of the points which Sigmund Freud makes in Civilization and its Discontents can be paralleled to the experiences of Candide in Voltaire's Candide. These points can also be linked with the society Man lives in today. Candide is clearly a member of Man's society and is subject to all the needs and desires described by Freud. Works Cited Sigmund Freud. Civilization_and_its_Discontents. New York: W. W. Norton and Company; 1961. Voltaire. Candide. London: Penguin Books; 1947.

Psycholinguistics: Linguistics and Language Production Essay

Psycholinguistics studies the relationship between language and mind. It studies how are language and speech acquired, produced, comprehended, and lost. Language acquisition and language dissolution happen over time or diachronically. While language production and comprehension happen at a certain point of time or synchronically. Firstly, this paper will talk about language acquisition. Children are a focus of attention and affection in all societies. They go through many stages in language acquisition such as crying, cooing, babbling, first word, birth of grammar and childish creativity. During the very first few weeks of a child’s life, crying is his only way to show what he needs. Crying is unaffected by intentional control from the nervous system, which is responsible for human behavior. At the very beginning, baby’s crying is completely iconic. For example, when the child is hungry, his or her crying becomes louder and louder, it also increases in pitch. During the first two months of the child’s life, his or her crying becomes more symbolic. At these early stages, babies cannot depend on themselves. They depend completely on their caretakers for several years. This creates on enormous degree of early bonding and socialization. As a result of the extensive interaction between the children and their caretakers, children start to coo, making soft gurgling sounds, to express satisfaction. The cooing stage emerges at two months. When the child is about six months old, he or she starts to babble. This babbling stage refers to the natural tendency of children to create strings of consonant-vowel syllable clusters as a kind of vocalic play. Psycholinguists distinguished between marginal babbling and canonical babbling. Marginal babbling is an early stage similar to cooing where the child produce few and random consonants. While canonical babbling emerges at eight months when the child’s vocalization narrow down to syllables that similar of caretaker’s language. Then, the child enters the first-word stage. It starts after crying, cooing, and babbling. It emerges at about one year old. Children use idiomorphs. They are words which children invent when they first catch on to the magical notion that certainly sounds have a unique reference. For example, when the child sounds†milk†, he or she says â€Å"kaka†. By using these idiomorphs, children transform from an iconic creature to a symbolic one. During this stage, children use egocentric speech. They want to talk about the objects which surround them. After this previous stage, the child starts to use grammatical forms. Children start to use one word as a sentence, request or an exclamation. It is referred to as the holophrastic stage. Psycholinguists believe that the intentional, gestural and contextual clues which accompany holophrases make it clear those children are using single word sentence, exactly as adults do in conversations. The child starts to make sentences by a grammatical form. They can develop they use of grammar by imitating their caretakers. For example, when the father says â€Å"backwards†, his daughter imitated him by saying â€Å"rightwards†. They start to create sentences after the holophrastic stage, first with two words and subsequently with more. Childish creativity is an important stage during the child’s life. Children’s language is determined for their mother tongue. For example, children who rose up in china, they speak Chinese. Children are creative. They come up with new words and expressions which are not in their native language or not heard in their bilingual environments. Children are a bit more like well-programmed computers, who make creative, but often inaccurate guesses about the rulers and patterns of the language they are acquiring. They create to construct or reconstruct their mother tongue. Secondly, this paper will talk about language production. We fail sometimes to appreciate our gifts underlying so many of our everyday activities, such as writers and artists. We realize how much we take our actions for granted only through loss of injury. Language production is very important for us. Psycholinguists divided language production into four stages, conceptualization, formulation, articulation and self-monitoring. Conceptualization is the first step in language production. It means how to conceptualize the speech in our mind. The theory of the American psycholinguist, David McNeill , says that primitive linguistic concepts are formed as two modes of thought. These are syntactic thinking, which creates the sequence of words which we typically think of when we talk about how language is initiated, and imagistic thinking, which creates a visual mode of communication. Syntactic thinking and imagistic thinking collaborate together to conceptualize conversation. Formulation is the second step in language production. It is the eventual output of the process. It is easier to formulate than to conceptualize. The psycholinguist , Karl lashely, published an essay focused on the psychology of language. It concentrated on how speakers produce words, sound, sentences and phrases together so rapidly and accurately. He talked about how common it is to commit spelling errors when one is typing. These slips of the tongue or the pen are not linguistic loss during brain damage. They are normal mistakes occurs in everyday speaking and writing. We can make back-track and correct it. Slips of the tongue happen between two constants or two vowels. It has a certain pattern. There is the planning of higher level of speech. It is to analyze the steps we have to take and the decisions we have in order to produce an intended utterance. For example, there is a conversation between you and your friend about a certain situation. You decided that something is not important. You can choose to formulate it by some factors as politeness. It could be stated in an affirmative of negative response such as, â€Å"it is nothing† or † it is trivial†. Articulation is the third step in language production. What happens in our mind is very similar to what happens in the computer when I want to print some information. The conceptualization stage perceive itself as the primary and ultimate composer of communication, and the formulation stage pride itself as the conductor of speech sounds, but without the instrument of articulation, the music of our voices remain unheard and unappreciated. Like the operation of the printer which connected with the computer to produce what I wrote. Human larynx’s position plays an important role in speaking. It gives the human the ability to articulate speech. Its lower position gives humans the ability to articulate speech sounds. Self- monitoring if the final step in language production. All speakers and writers of any language, regardless of their degree of native fluency, commit linguistic blunders. Here, we have errors and mistakes. For native speakers, they do not commit errors, but they commit mistakes. They can self-correct immediately. While for non-native speakers, they commit errors and they are not able to notice it or correct it. Thirdly, this paper will talk about language comprehension. Understanding language is an automatic task which happens very quickly. Sounds or letters strike our ears or eyes creating words which form phrases, clauses and sentences. Understanding language was divided into four stages, comprehension of sounds, comprehension of words, comprehension of sentences and comprehension of texts. In the comprehension of sounds, psycholinguists did an experiment on a group of people. They gave them four sentences and each sentence has a missing word. They gave them the last syllable of each missing word and asked them to write down each word. For example, (1) it was found that the †¦eel was on the axle, (2) it was found that the †¦eel was on the shoe , (3) it was found that the †¦eel was on the orange, (3) it was found that the †¦eel was on the table. This insertion of different missing sounds to create a separate and appropriate word in each sentence is called the phoneme restoration effect. From the comprehension of the other words in the sentence, they can expect the missing word. Comprehension of words is more complex than the comprehension of sounds. Each word has many sounds. Even in short and one syllable words, we can find that they composed of many sounds. Each language has thousands of words where we can find some similar words which make us confuse in the meaning. One model that psycholinguists have adopted to account for this complexity is Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP). Its perspective argues that we use several separate and parallel processes when we understand spoken or written language. When someone hear or see a word, he or she can stimulate an individual logogen (verve cells) or lexical detection device for that word. These logogens link to individual neurons in neuronal network. Then, they activate themselves and work in parallel with many other logogens to create comprehension. There are comprehension of high frequency words and comprehensions of low frequency words. High frequency words are rapidly and frequently comprehended like â€Å"boy† and â€Å"orange†. While low frequency words take a long time to be comprehended like â€Å"exotic† and â€Å"logogen†. Psycholinguists divided the comprehension of words into several ways, in term of their spelling, on the basis of their pronunciation, and in terms of grammatical functions. In term of their spelling, like the homophones, the words pronounced alike but spelled differently, for example ; â€Å"threw† and â€Å"through†. On the basis of their pronunciation, like homographs, words spelled alike but pronounced differently, for example; â€Å"lead†noun and â€Å"lead† verb. In terms of grammatical functions, the word may be function as a verb and a noun or either of them only. There is another example of the uselessness of (PDP) approach to the comprehension of words most of us encounter during our daily life. It is what psycholinguists named as the Tip of the Tongue (TOT) phenomenon. This phenomenon occurs when we know a word but we cannot remember it to pronounce it. It is on the tip of the tongue. The word is not completely forgotten, but we can remember usually the first syllable of this word. This means that our long term memory storage is better for recognition than for recall. Comprehension of sentences is more complex than comprehension of sounds and words. Psycholinguists based their researches to examine the comprehension of sentences on the model of sentence grammar which proposed by Chomsky in 1950s. Chomsky model claimed that all sentences were generated from a phrase structure skeleton has a series of transformational rules which is named as (Transformational Generative Grammar). These transformations are very powerful. They could create many verities of sentences by rearranging, adding, deleting or substituting words in the original sentence. Psycholinguists examine these transformations on a group of native listeners to notice their level of comprehension. Example number one is : the dog is chasing the cat. While example number two is : Is not the cat chased by the dog?. Example number one is easier than example number two, because it has three transformational changes; it has been transformed into a negative, passive and interrogative sentence. Psycholinguists called this process as Derivational Theory of Complexity (DTC), because difficulty in comprehension was derived from number of transformations that were added to the original and simple sentence. Psycholinguists made experiments to test (DTC). They gave a group of listeners a number of sentences and asked them to recall both the sentence they had just heard and a string of words. They found that when the sentence becomes more complicated than the previous sentence and the number of sentences becomes more than one or two, the listener remembers fewer and fewer words. They also confuse by additional transformations in each sentence. Comprehension of texts is more complex than the others. When someone read or hear a text, he or she can remember the content but not typically the grammar of each sentence. The presence or absence of our background information can affect dramatically the way we remember a piece of discourse. Grammatically, we can remember simple sentences not complicated ones, for example we can remember active sentences than passive ones. Finally, this paper will talk about language dissolution or language loss. Language dissolution can be caused by unhappy accident which violates the language area of the brain, a traumatic event in our personal life, or genetic disorders. Psycholinguists found that the dissolution of language whether due to accident or age, is a rich source of information about how the human mind controls our attempt to communicate. Neurolinguistics and language loss have two things which are the evidence from aphasia and the surgical evidence. Neurolinguistics is an offspring of psycholinguistics, investigates how the human brain creates and processes speech and language. Firstly, we will talk about the loss of language due to brain damage. To understand how this happens, we need to clear up some misunderstandings about the human brain and how it functions. Anatomically, the brain has two separate and virtually identical cerebral hemispheres. There are millions of associations’ pathways which connect the left and the right hemispheres together, so any information in either hemisphere is shared with the other. Our central interest is in language not in the anatomical mapping of human neurology, so we concerned with the location of the control of speech organs and the sensation of speech. If I take the left hand and cup it over the left ear so that the palm of the hand is clapped over the ear hole. I can find that the left hand covers most of the left side of the head. If I opened the skull, I will find under the first two fingers, two vertical strips of brain tissues running down from the top of the head. They have the same size of the two fingers. It is the area of the brain which is responsible for the production and comprehension of human language. Under the middle finger, there is the motor cortex which responsible for muscular movements. While under the index finger, there is the sensory cortex. The top of the motor cortex and sensory cortex take care of the movement and sensation of the feet. While the bottom of these two strips are responsible for the head, mouth and throat. We can find that the top of the brain controls the lower part of the body and the vice versa. The left side of the brain is responsible for the right side of the brain and the vice versa. The top parts of the motor and sensory cortexes are responsible for the movement and sensation of the feet. While the bottom parts of them are responsible for the head. Humans are susceptible to injury in the central nervous system. The damage could arise from a loss of blood supply to the location of the central nervous system due to stroke, or invasive injury like an automobile accident or gunshot wound. There are two consequences that make the central nervous system unique in relation to any part of your body. Firstly, there is no pain receptor in the brain that is why a stroke, unlike a heart attack, is not a painful experience. The second thing is that the central nervous system does not regenerate. Once it is damaged, it does not grow back. Now, let us speak about the surgical evidence. There are two kinds of surgical operation have a particular bearing on questions of language dissolution. The first operation is hemispherectomy and the second one is split-brain operation. In rare cases, when the neurosurgeons find that either the left or right hemisphere of a patient was hardly affected, he or she opens this affected side of the skull and remove the entire left or right hemisphere. This operation performs on adults or children under the age of ten. For an adult, this operation causes a dramatic effect on them. When an adult undergoes a left hemispherectomy, he or she becomes completely aphasic, except for a few words of automatic speech. While, if this operation performed on children, it does not lead to loss of speech. The factor here for these causes is the age of the brain. During the first decades of human life, the human brain is continuously evolving and growing. Linguistic functions have not yet localized to specific areas of the brain. This gives a neuroplasticity of the still maturing brain. When a young brain encounters traumatic injury, even to the extent of losing an entire cerebral hemisphere, because it is still maturing, and because the primary areas of cognitive and linguistic functioning have not established, a child does not suffer the functional loss that an adult does. Children aphasia exists and stem from neurological abnormalities such as autism. The second operation is the split-brain operation which was developed in 1970s to treat specific cases of severe epilepsy. This operation was developed to spare sufferers from the terrible trauma of major seizures, because there are certain severe and singular forms of epilepsy which remain unaffected by pharmacological treatment. Epilepsy is caused by discharges in the motor cortex in one hemisphere that are transmitted to the corresponding cortex of the other hemisphere via the corpus callosum. There are a few negative consequences to the operation, and this rests largely on the fact that our senses are bilaterally represented. After the corpus callosum is cut, in normal, everyday situations, information from either eye goes to both hemispheres. Speech and language disorders are divided into dissolution from non-damaged brains and language loss through aging. There are two examples of disorders which causes dissolution from non-damage brain. These two examples are stuttering and autism. Stuttering is one of the most common articulation problems. It occurs, most frequently on the initial word of a clause, the first syllable of a word, the initial consonant of a syllable, and on stop consonants. There is a theory represents the extreme behavioral view and claims that stuttering originates from traumatic events occurring in early childhood when sensitive parents and primary school teachers are too assiduous in attempting to ensure that the child speaks fluently. There is another theory states that stammering is caused by the absence of unambiguous lateralization of speech to the left hemisphere. There another disorder which is autism. The first signs of this disorder are apparent in infants, before speech has really developed. Autism is referred to as childhood schizophrenia. An autistic infant exhibits a disregard for human interaction and ignores eye and face contact. This condition creates a lack of social interaction. At the end, the reduction in physical and mental abilities does accompany the aging process. When we become older, the language may be lost quickly.